Still life

A Still life is a piece of art that primarily features inanimate objects, usually everyday items that are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals, plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or man-made (drinking glasses, books, vases, jewelry, coins, pipes, etc.). By the late 16th century, still-life painting—which had its roots in Ancient Greco-Roman art and the Middle Ages—had become a distinct genre and professional specialty in Western painting, and it has continued to be important ever since. One benefit of the still-life art style is that it gives the artist a great deal of latitude to experiment with how materials are arranged within a painting's composition. The English term "still life" is derived from the Dutch word "stilleven," and the genre of still life originated in the 16th and 17th centuries in the Netherlands. Religious and allegorical meaning pertaining to the things portrayed were frequently found in early still life paintings, especially those created before 1700.

A range of media and technologies, including found objects, photography, computer graphics, video, and sound, are used to create later still-life paintings. Paintings of dead animals, particularly game, fall under this category. Even though they were frequently painted from dead models, live ones are regarded as animal art. The still-life category also has similarities with zoological and particularly botanical illustration due to the use of plants and animals as subjects. But when it comes to visual or fine art, the goal is not just to accurately depict the subject. Even though still life was at the bottom of the genre hierarchy, purchasers have found it to be very appealing.

Even though still life was at the bottom of the genre hierarchy, purchasers have found it to be very appealing. In addition to the autonomous still-life topic, still-life painting includes "images that rely on a multitude of still-life elements ostensibly to reproduce a 'slice of life'" and other forms of painting with prominent still-life elements, which are typically symbolic. The trompe-l'oeil painting is a specific kind of still life that typically depicts inanimate and relatively flat objects with the goal of tricking the observer into believing the picture is real.

Still life on a 2nd-century mosaic, with fish, poultry, dates and vegetables from the Vatican museum

The inside of ancient Egyptian tombs are frequently decorated with still life paintings. It was thought that food products and other goods shown there would materialize in the afterlife and be usable by the departed. Greek vase paintings from antiquity also show a remarkable ability to depict commonplace items and animals. Pliny the Elder describes Peiraikos as a panel painter of "low" subjects, including as "barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects," which are preserved in mosaic copies and provincial wall paintings at Pompeii. The Roman wall paintings and floor mosaics discovered at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Villa Boscoreale also have similar still lifes with realistic perspective and a more purely ornamental objective, including the later well-known theme of a glass bowl of fruit. In addition to serving as symbols of hospitality and as celebrations of life and the seasons, decorative mosaics known as "emblema" that were found in the homes of wealthy Romans showed the variety of foods consumed by the upper classes.

By the sixteenth century, food and flowers would once more be used as representations of the five senses and the seasons. The practice of using the skull as a symbol of mortality and earthly remnants in artworks, frequently accompanied by the slogan Omnia mors aequat (Death makes all equal), also dates back to Roman times. Beginning with Dutch painters about 1600, these vanitas motifs have been reinterpreted over the course of the last 400 years of art history. The oldest accounts of trompe l'oeil painting in history are found in the ancient Greek fable of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who are supposed to have once competed to make the most lifelike things. This story relates to the public appreciation of the realism of still life painting. Greek artists were already highly skilled in still life, genre, and portrait painting centuries before Pliny the Elder documented this in ancient Roman times. He highlighted Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few...He painted barbershops and shoemakers' stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest [paintings] of many other artists."

Glass bowl of fruit and vases. Roman wall painting in Pompeii (around 70 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy

The oldest accounts of trompe l'oeil painting in history are found in the ancient Greek fable of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who are supposed to have once competed to make the most lifelike things. This story relates to the public appreciation of the realism of still life painting. Greek artists were already highly skilled in still life, genre, and portrait painting centuries before Pliny the Elder documented this in ancient Roman times. He highlighted Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few...He painted barbershops and shoemakers' stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest [paintings] of many other artists."

Middle Ages and Early Renaissance

By 1300, still-life painting had been resurrected in the shape of imaginary niches on holy wall paintings that portrayed commonplace objects, thanks to Giotto and his students. In Western art during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life continued to be mostly used as an allegorical and religious complement to Christian religious themes. This was especially evident in the work of Northern European artists, who paid close attention to the overall meaning of their paintings due to their interest with highly realistic optical realism and symbolism. Still-life components were frequently used into iconographic programs by painters such as Jan van Eyck. In the borders of illuminated manuscripts, still-life elements—mostly flowers, but also animals and occasionally inanimate objects—were painted with increasing realism in the late Middle Ages. This led to the development of models and technological advancements that were utilized by painters of larger scenes. Particularly in Early Netherlandish painting, there was a great deal of overlap between those who painted panels and those who created miniatures for manuscripts. One of the best instances of this technique is the Hours of Catherine of Cleves, which was most likely created in Utrecht around 1440. Its borders have an amazing variety of objects, such as coins and fishing nets, that were selected to match the text or primary image at that specific moment.

Hans Memling (1430–1494), Vase of Flowers (1480), Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. According to some scholars the Vase of Flowers is filled with religious symbolism.

Later in the century, border elements' realism was further developed in Flemish workshops. Another illustration of the overall growing interest in realistic representations of vegetation and animals is found in Gothic millefleur tapestries. The most famous example is the set of The Lady and the Unicorn, which was created in Paris in 1500 and subsequently woven in Flanders. The delayed drying, mixing, and layering properties of oil colors allowed Jan van Eyck and other Northern European artists to create an oil painting technique that allowed them to depict commonplace objects in this hyper-realistic manner. Albrecht Dürer, who also produced accurate colored drawings of flora and fauna, and Leonardo da Vinci, who produced watercolor studies of fruit about 1495 as part of his restless study of nature, were among the first to break free from religious connotation. A prominent example of a transitional still life with both sacred and secular elements is the painting by Petrus Christus of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith. The goldsmith is actually a representation of St. Eligius, and the artifacts are highly symbolic, even though the message is primarily metaphorical. The couple's forms are realistic, and the things (coins, vessels, etc.) are painted properly. The family portrait, which combines figures with a set table of food, is another kind of painting that is comparable.

Around this time, the exterior shutters of private devotional paintings started to be painted with straightforward still-life portraits of figures that had no allegorical significance. Painting symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits circa 1475 was another step toward the autonomous still life. With his Still Life with Partridge and Gauntlets (1504), one of the first signed and dated trompe l'oeil still-life paintings, Jacopo de' Barbari went one step further and included very little religious content. 

Joachim Beuckelaer (1533–1575), Kitchen scene, with Jesus in the house of Martha and Mary in the background (1566), 171 × 250 cm (67.3 × 98.4 in).

Even though the majority of still lifes created after 1600 were rather small paintings, the "monumental still life" tradition—which was primarily centered in Antwerp—of large paintings with expansive spreads of still-life material featuring figures and frequently animals played a significant role in the genre's development. The font was created by Pieter Aertsen, whose painting A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms (1551, now Uppsala) is still shocking. Another example is "The Butcher Shop" by Aertsen's nephew Joachim Beuckelaer (1568), which features a background scenario that illustrates the perils of intoxication and lechery while a realistic portrayal of raw meats dominates the foreground. In order to elevate the topic, a theme like the Four Seasons is introduced, or a modest religious setting can frequently be seen in the distance. Although other works in this lineage foreshadow the "merry company" form of genre painting, this kind of large-scale still life is uncommon in Dutch painting but continued to grow in Flemish painting following the division of the North and South. Moral lessons persisted as sub-contexts, but religious content gradually decreased in size and location in these kinds of paintings. Annibale Carracci's 1583 painting Butcher's Shop, one of the comparatively few Italian pieces in the style, starts to eliminate the moral lessons, as did other "kitchen and market" still-life paintings from this era.

Extensive botanical encyclopedias documenting the discoveries of Asia and the New World were produced throughout the 16th century, which also saw a surge in interest in the natural world. Additionally, it spurred the development of scientific drawing and specimen classification. Natural items started to be valued as distinct research subjects independent of any religious or mythical connotations. This also marked the beginning of the early science of herbal treatments, which was a useful use of this new understanding. Rich benefactors also started funding the collection of mineral and animal specimens, resulting in large cabinets of oddities. These specimens were used as models by painters who aimed for originality and realism. Natural items started to be valued as distinct research subjects independent of any religious or mythical connotations. This also marked the beginning of the early science of herbal treatments, which was a useful use of this new understanding. Rich benefactors also started funding the collection of mineral and animal specimens, resulting in large cabinets of oddities. These specimens were used as models by painters who aimed for originality and realism.

These specimens were used as models by painters who aimed for originality and realism. New flora like the tulip, which was brought to Europe from Turkey, were celebrated in still-life paintings, while shells, insects, exotic fruits, and flowers started to be gathered and exchanged.In Europe, there was a great deal of interest in the horticulture boom, which artists took advantage of to create thousands of still life paintings. Particular interests were held by certain courts and localities. For instance, the Medici court in Florence, Italy, had a strong interest in the representation of citrus. Around 1600, the widespread use of actual specimens and the growing interest in natural illustration throughout Europe led to the almost simultaneous production of contemporary still-life paintings.

Dutch and Flemish painting

In the final quarter of the sixteenth century, still life emerged as a distinct type in the Low Countries. The Dutch word stilleven is the source of the English word "still life," but Romance languages, including Greek, Polish, Russian, and Turkish, frequently use expressions that refer to dead nature. Early Netherlandish painters of the 15th century developed highly illusionistic techniques for both panel painting and illuminated manuscripts. The borders of these works frequently included intricate displays of flowers, insects, and, in a piece such as the Hours of Catherine of Cleves, a wide range of things. The same techniques were later used in scientific botanical illustration after the printed book replaced the illuminated manuscript; the Low Countries led Europe in both botany and its artistic representation. The Dutch word stilleven is the source of the English word "still life," but Romance languages, including Greek, Polish, Russian, and Turkish, frequently use expressions that refer to dead nature. Early Netherlandish painters of the 15th century developed highly illusionistic techniques for both panel painting and illuminated manuscripts. The borders of these works frequently included intricate displays of flowers, insects, and, in a piece such as the Hours of Catherine of Cleves, a wide range of things. The same techniques were later used in scientific botanical illustration after the printed book replaced the illuminated manuscript; the Low Countries led Europe in both botany and its artistic representation.

Willem Kalf (1619–1693), oil on canvas, The J. Paul Getty Museum

The Dutch Reformed Protestant Church forbade images of religious subjects, so artists in the North had little opportunity to create the religious iconography that had long been their mainstay. However, the growing Dutch middle classes, who were displacing the Church and State as the country's main patrons of art, were drawn to the Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden symbols. The Dutch enthusiasm for gardening, especially tulips, was another factor. There is a huge market for this kind of still life because of the combination of these two perspectives on flowers: as religious symbols and as beautiful objects. Like the majority of Dutch artwork, still lifes were typically offered for sale in open markets or by dealers who selected the arrangement and subject matter. However, the growing Dutch middle classes, who were displacing the Church and State as the country's main patrons of art, were drawn to the Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden symbols. The Dutch enthusiasm for gardening, especially tulips, was another factor. There is a huge market for this kind of still life because of the combination of these two perspectives on flowers: as religious symbols and as beautiful objects. Like the majority of Dutch artwork, still lifes were typically offered for sale in open markets or by dealers who selected the arrangement and subject matter.

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